Understanding Archival Hierarchy: Context, Structure, and Ethics
Archival hierarchy is one of the foundational principles of the archival profession, shaping how we describe and relate archival materials. In this blog post, we explore what archival hierarchy is, where it comes from, how it works in practice, and why it matters. Whether you are new to archives or looking to deepen your understanding, this guide offers a comprehensive introduction to the layered nature of archival description.
The Background and Historical Context
To meet the unique descriptive needs of archival materials, archivists have developed international standards and content models over the years. The International Council on Archives (ICA) introduced several such frameworks between 1993 and 2007, including:
ISAD(G): International Standard Archival Description (General)
ISAAR(CPF): Archival Authority Record for Corporate Bodies, Persons, and Families
ISDF: Standard for Describing Functions
ISAD(G) established the expectation that descriptions follow a hierarchical structure, emphasizing whole-part relationships between levels of a collection. The Society of American Archivists later created Describing Archives: A Content Standard (DACS) to interpret these international guidelines for a U.S. context and integrate them with other systems like RDA (Resource Description and Access).
Understanding this background helps contextualize why hierarchical structures exist and what rules we follow when applying them in modern archival settings.
What Is a Hierarchical Structure?
In archives, a hierarchical structure is one in which items are nested within other items, much like a family tree or a set of nesting dolls. Lower levels inherit contextual meaning from the levels above them. This model allows us to position each unit of description in relation to a larger whole, providing intellectual clarity even when physical order is absent.
As RDA explains it, hierarchical description involves connecting related descriptions in a part-to-whole relationship, offering full identification of both the components and the entire group.
This structure becomes especially important when dealing with records created by large, complex organizations. It also reinforces the archival principle of respect des fonds, which asserts that materials should be preserved in the context of their original creator and order. This principle emphasizes the documentary value not just of individual items, but of how and why they were created and used.
That said, today's archives include a much broader and more diverse set of records than in the 19th and 20th centuries. While early fonds often reflected stable, hierarchical entities like corporations or government agencies, modern archives may include loosely organized personal papers, digital content, and records that cross institutional or thematic lines. As a result, some archivists now distinguish between the physical and intellectual control of a fonds, opting to represent relationships intellectually in the finding aid rather than physically rearranging materials.
Why Hierarchy Matters
Hierarchical structure provides a way to:
Contextualize materials
Capture complex relationships
Guide users through a layered understanding of the collection
Standardize content for encoding systems like EAD (Encoded Archival Description)
When building an EAD finding aid, for example, you may begin by determining the nature of the materials and then using that to assign appropriate level attributes.
General Rules for Multilevel Description
Broad to Specific: Start at the top and move downward. Upper levels should describe large groupings, while lower levels become increasingly specific.
Do Not Repeat Information: Avoid including details in upper-level descriptions that only apply to lower levels. Similarly, don't repeat content from higher levels when you get more granular.
Use DACS Elements: Include required elements such as scope and content, title, and date for each level. Titles can be formal or supplied, and dates can range from exact to approximate.
Tailor to the Collection: Match the depth of your description to the complexity of the collection and the needs of users. Not every collection requires item-level detail.
The "System of Arrangement" section of a finding aid is your opportunity to explain how you structured the collection and why. It might follow original order or reflect an imposed scheme like alphabetical, chronological, or topical.
Levels of Description in Practice
Let’s look at the common levels used in archival hierarchy:
Fonds
The total body of records created or accumulated by a particular person, family, or organization during their life or work. In the U.S., the term may be replaced with "record group," "collection," or "record series."
For example, the Massachusetts Historical Society holds the Richard Frothingham papers, 1683–1865, which reflect the work of an individual. The Old North Church (Christ Church in the City of Boston) Records, 1569–1997 represent a corporate body. These fonds offer a top-level description of all the materials held.
Subfonds
Subdivisions within a fonds, often representing departments or distinct functional units within a larger organization. In the U.S., these are more commonly called "subgroups."
Subfonds may be useful for differentiating accessions or topics within a single fonds. They are less common in personal papers.
Series
Records grouped together due to a shared activity, form, or filing process. Series are foundational in archival arrangement.
Examples from the Old North Church fonds include:
Administrative Records, 1722–1997
Financial Records, 1722–1963
Baptism, Marriage, and Burial Records, 1723–1970
Pew Records, 1724–1960
Each series includes its own scope and content information and may be further divided.
Subseries
A further breakdown of a series based on physical type, content, or format. For example, the "Administrative Records" series includes:
Volumes, 1724–1946
Loose Administrative Records, 1722–1997
If subseries do not require unique contextual notes, they may lead directly into files.
File
A set of documents grouped together by subject, function, or transaction. Files are usually the smallest unit routinely used in arrangement.
Within "Volumes, 1724–1946," files include:
Wardens’ and Vestry Record Volumes
Proprietors’ Record Volumes
Item
An individual piece such as a letter, report, or photograph. Item-level description is often reserved for high-value or frequently requested materials due to the labor involved.
For instance, within the vestry volumes, specific books are listed individually, sometimes with additional descriptive elements.
Ethical Considerations
Archivists are not neutral. Every choice made in arrangement and description involves interpretation. Records were created in social and cultural contexts, and those contexts should be acknowledged.
Here are some ethical questions to keep in mind:
What social or political dynamics shaped the creation of the records?
Is the fonds complete? Are parts of the creator’s work housed elsewhere?
How has custodial history affected the way records are arranged?
Should information about the processing archivist be included to provide transparency?
Born-digital materials also present new challenges. Scholars like Geoffrey Yeo and Rachel Walton have discussed how digital and web-based access changes the way we interact with hierarchy, suggesting that the "browse" paradigm may no longer be sufficient in a "search"-driven environment.
Final Thoughts
Archival hierarchy is not just a structure; it is a way of thinking. It is a framework that helps archivists preserve context, support user access, and provide intellectual clarity across time, format, and function. By understanding the logic and ethics behind archival hierarchy, we can build more thoughtful and transparent collections that serve users now and in the future.
For more on this topic, check out recent work by Shelley Sweeney, Geoffrey Yeo, Rachel Walton, and others, or revisit our webinar on Provenance and Original Order.
Recorded Webinar
Want to learn more? Check out our webinar on archival hierarchy!
Sources
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